pathloss 5.0

WCDMA Basic Tutorial

2010-01-18T23:36:00.000-08:00

WCDMA Link Budget

2010-01-18T23:19:00.000-08:00

Download WCDMA Link Budget (xls file)

Link budget planning is part of the network planning process, which helps to dimension the required coverage, capacity and quality of service requirement in the network. UMTS WCDMA macro cell coverage is uplink limited, because mobiles power level is limited to (voice terminal 125mW). Downlink direction limits the available capacity of the cell, as BTS transmission power (typically 20-40W) has to be divided to all users. In a network environment both coverage and capacity are interlinked by interference. So by improving one side of the equation would decrease the other side. System is loosely balanced by design. The object of the link budget design is to calculate maximum cell size under given criteria:

# Type of service (data type and speed)
# Type of environment (terrain, building penetration)
# Behavior and type of mobile (speed, max power level)
# System configuration (BTS antennas, BTS power, cable losses, handover gain)
# Required coverage probability
# Financial and economical factors (use of more expensive and better quality equipment or not the cheapest installation method)

and to match all of those to the required system coverage, capacity and quality needs with each area and service.

In an urban area, capacity will be the limiting factor, so inner city cells will be dimensioned by required Erlangs/km² for voice and data. Even using 25dB as inbuilding penetration loss into the building core area, link budget would typically allow about 300m cell range, which is a way too much for a capacity purposes. In a rural area uplink power budget will determine the maximum cell range, when typically cells are less congested. A typical cell range in rural areas will be several kilometers depending on a terrain.

Below is an example of how WCDMA voice call link budget can be done. Some of the values can be debated, including the propagation model, but it gives an idea of the calculation methods.

MicDecoder

2010-01-18T22:01:00.000-08:00

Purpose

Download : MicDecoder

Purpose

MicDecoder is mainly used to decode A and Abis information. One message is showed in one line, so it's easier for the user to have an overview. If the source file offers enough information, the decoder can qualify the IMSI, so only one subscriber’s behavior will be showed.

MicDecoder is not a full function protocol analyzer, it only provides some important information on A and Abis interface, and gives the user some idea of what happen. Not all the information element in the message will be decoded. How much information it can offer largely depends on the source file. The source file comes from the restart data or TEST SYSTEM in BSC. Due to the restriction of the TEST SYSTEM, it's impossible to trace all the A and Abis information in the live site. To use it in live site, more condition should be set in the TEST SYSTEM in order to get useful trace file. So the user's skill of TEST SYSTEM is needed.

MicDecoder supports online decoding, it’s quite usefully feature.

Reversion history

2006-04-10 Version 1.0, for test purpose.

2006-05-17 Version 1.1, add the support to decode the trace from R11 and R12, correct some document fault.

2006-07-13 Version 06.0713, correct the serious fault during IMSI qualification, add the support for G2U handover

2006-07-22 Version 06.0722, correct the fault during IMSI qualification, and a memory leak.

2006-10-20 Version 06.1020, add basic support on SCCP CL messages.

2006-10-23 Version 06.1023, add basic support on supplementary service.

2006-12-20 Version 06.1220, add support on system information, correct fault in decoding message of R12 format.

2006-12-31 Version 06.1231, add basic support on Abis OML messages.

2007-01-31 Version 07.0131, add support on DTM messages.

2007-07-09 Version 07.0709, compile the program on Visual Studio 2005 platform, some user friendly functions are added.

2007-10-24 Version 07.1024, add support on signal function fetched from PLEX.

2008-01-13 Version 08.0113, online decoding is supported.

How to use

Offline Decode

1. Source file generation

Two source files can be recognized by MidDecoder.

One is the restart data from live site, which may contains some traffic information.

Another comes from the trace result of TEST SYSTEM. In order to get the trace file, please put in the following trace in the TEST SYSTEM.

To trace call flow in R8, R9 and R10, use the trace below:

TELMI:TI=50,LOAD=80;

TMSIZE 32768;

ON IN DO:P MS,P EXECFID,P SWD,;

ON OU DO:P MS,P EXECFID,P SWD,;

ON IN RMHBI RCRECABISMSGC,RCRECABISMSGI,RCCHALLINFO;

ON OU RMHBI RCSENDABISMSGC,RCSENDABISMSGI,RCSNDABISMSGC10;

ON OU RMHAIUL RACOSENDINMSG1C,RACOSNDBSSMAP1C,RACOSNDBSSMAP1I,RACOSENDDTAP1C, RACOSENDDTAP1I;

ON OU RMHAIUL RACOINMSGRSP1C,RACOINMSGRSP1I,RACOINMSGREJ1C;

ON IN RMHAIDL RACOTAKEBSSMAPC,RACOTAKEBSSMAPI,RACOTAKEDTAPC,RACOTAKEDTAPI, RACOTAKEINMSGC,RACOTAKEINMSGI;

INIT;

To trace call flow in R11, R12 and 06A/06B/07A/07B, use the trace below:

TELMI:TI=50,LOAD=80;

TMSIZE 32768;

ON IN DO:P MS,P EXECFID,P SWD,;

ON OU DO:P MS,P EXECFID,P SWD,;

ON IN RMHBI RNRECABISMSGC,RNRECABISMSGI,RNALLOCINFO;

ON OU RMHBI RNSENDABISMSGC,RNSENDABISMSGI,RNSNDABISMSGC10;

ON OU RMHAIUL RACOSNDBSSMAP1C,RACOSNDBSSMAP1I,RACOSENDDTAP1C, RACOSENDDTAP1I,RTCOSNDINAMSGC;

ON IN RMHAIDL RACOTAKEBSSMAPC,RACOTAKEBSSMAPI,RACOTAKEDTAPC,RACOTAKEDTAPI, RTCOTAKEINMSGC,RTCOTAKEINMSGI;

INIT;

To trace SCCP CL message in R8, R9 and R10:

TELMI:TI=50,LOAD=80;

TMSIZE 32768;

ON IN DO:P MS,P EXECFID,P SWD,;

ON OU DO:P MS,P EXECFID,P SWD,;

ON IN RABDI RACLSENDDATA1C, RACLSENDDATA1I;

ON OU RABDI RACLTAKEDATAC, RACLTAKEDATAI;

INIT;

To trace SCCP CL message in R11, R12 and R06A/06B/07A/07B:

TELMI:TI=50,LOAD=80;

TMSIZE 32768;

ON IN DO:P MS,P EXECFID,P SWD,;

ON OU DO:P MS,P EXECFID,P SWD,;

ON IN RABDI RTCLSENDADATAC, RTCLSENDADATAI;

ON OU RABDI RTCLTAKEADATAC, RTCLTAKEADATAI;

INIT;

To trace system information (halt and activate the cell can trigger it):

TELMI:TI=50,LOAD=80;

TMSIZE 32768;

ON OU DO:P MS,P EXECFID,P SWD,;

ON OU RCSI RHSENDMSGC;

INIT;

To trace Abis OML message (RBS2000):

TELMI:TI=50,LOAD=80;

TMSIZE 32768;

ON OU DO:P MS,P EXECFID,P SWD,;

ON IN DO:P MS,P EXECFID,P SWD,;

ON OU RXOLH RHSENDMSGC, RHSENDMSGI;

ON IN RXOLH RHRECMSGC, RHRECMSGI;

INIT;

To trace a single call flow in live site is very difficult, IMSI can be used as the filter to qualify the trace, and the trace below can be a reference (it’s not valid for those sites with TMSI using), the position of IMSI vary in different scenarios, message RACOSENDINMSG1C should be studied carefully:

TELMI:TI=50,LOAD=80;

TMSIZE 32768;

ON IN DO:IF BNR=H'9E THEN;

IF DR12 MASK H'FFF0=H'0640; !qualify IMSI 460002200000012!

IF DR13=H'2200; !qualify IMSI 460002200000012!

IF DR14=H'0000; !qualify IMSI 460002200000012!

IF DR15=H'2100; !qualify IMSI 460002200000012!

SET TVAR 0=EXECFID;

P EXECFID,P MS,P IA,P SWD;

ELSE;

IF TVAR 0=EXECFID;

P EXECFID,P MS,P IA,P SWD;

FI,;

ON OU DO:IF TVAR 0=EXECFID,P EXECFID,P MS,P IA,P SWD,;

ON IN RABDI RACOSENDINMSG1C;

ON IN RMHAIDL RACOTAKEBSSMAPC,RACOTAKEBSSMAPI,RACOTAKEDTAPC,RACOTAKEDTAPI, RACOTAKEINMSGC,RACOTAKEINMSGI;

ON OU RMHAIUL RACOSNDBSSMAP1C,RACOSNDBSSMAP1I,RACOSENDDTAP1C, RACOSENDDTAP1I;

ON OU RMHAIUL RACOINMSGRSP1C,RACOINMSGRSP1I,RACOINMSGREJ1C;

save the file with any name, and put it under certain directory, i.g. \DATA.

It's suggested create a directory and put all the trace files there, the result file will be saved in the same directory as the trace file.

The trace above can be used in STP without any problem, however more restriction is needed in live site, otherwise it's hard to get the useful information. To the worse, it may cause the system unstable.

2. Target file generation

Once the source file is ready, run MicDecoder, and open the source file in MicDecoder. A and Abis raw data and decoded information will be showed.

To make it easier to study, filters can be used. There are some filters in MicDecoder:

IMSI/TMSI filter: to qualify the MS with the specific IMSI/TMSI, it makes sense only when enough information is collected. Normally it’s useless for the log file collected from live site
A message filter: qualify A interface message
Abis message filter: qualify Abis interface message, including RSL and OML
MS filter: show or hide time information
EXECFID filter: show or hide forlopp information
Raw Data filter: show or hide raw data, it could be useful that if the decoder can not decode the message, user can decode it by himself/herself.

It could be useful that original information is showed as well as the decoded information (especially when the source file is restart data). This can be set from menu à View à Original Info, however it must be done before source file is opened.

The result file can be saved, by default it will be saved under the same directory as source file.

Online Decode

This function is only tested with WinFiol version 7.0

1. Trace generation

Put the trace into WinFiol, the trace is referred to the above (Source file generation, Offline decode), or any other trace.

2. Decode generation

In MicDecoder, two steps are needed:

Connect MicDecoder to WinFiol, Menu à WinFiol à Connect, notice the status bar in MicDecoder, it shows “WinFiol is connected” when ready.
Connect MicDecoder to current active channel in WinFiol, Menu à WinFiol à Connect Current Channel, notice the status bar in MicDecoder, it shows “Connected to channel #x …” when ready.

After that, when there is signal information showed on the WinFiol, the decoded information will show up on MicDecoder at the same time.

To end the online decoding:

Menu à WinFiol à Disconnected, notice the status bar in MicDecoder, it shows “WinFiol is disconnected” when ready.

Decode signal function

It can be useful to get the signal function sometimes, especially when the user is familiar with signal flow, it give the user an overview.

To make it work, Plex database should be connected to the MicDecoder, then signal function will be fetched and showed with the original information, to make it work, follow the step below:

Connect plex database, Menu à View à Set plex database
Tick signal function, Menu à View à Signal Function
Tick original information, Menu à View à Original info
Open log file

User friendly function

MicDecoder is not good at text edition. It just offers some basic function like Find, Select, Copy, Paste etc. To get the information further processed, it’s suggested to use other powerful editor like UltraEdit etc.

What’s the benefit

In MidDecoder, one message is showed in one line, so it's easier for the user to have an overview. With enough information, it can qualify single subscriber behavior. This tool is very useful in STP testing, and it can take the place of protocol analyzer to some extend. The log file collected from STP can be used as the reference in trouble shooting later.

MicDecoder supports online decoding, as long as connection between MicDecoder and WinFiol is setup, the signal trace showed on the WinFiol will be decoded and showed up in MicDecoder at the same time.

Due to the restriction of TEST SYSTEM, it may not be very useful in live site, however with the good skill in TEST SYSTEM, setting proper condition, it sill valuable for trouble shooting.

MicDecoder can decode traffic information in restart data as well. This could be quite useful when analyzing some traffic related fault in live site. It has been used in emergency and CSR handling and offer useful tips for trouble shooting.

Restriction

MicDecoder can not decode the entire information element in the message. Only some important information is showed. As for which information element is important, it's judged by the author.

IMSI/TMSI filter doesn’t work properly after mobile handover (A interface message can still be filtered, but not for abis message), so if handover happens in the log file, the user must filter the message by himself/herself.

Not all the message can be decoded, once you find out certain message in your trace file can not be decoded, please feedback the author.

VGCS message is not supported for time being, since there is not log files caught so far. If anyone of you have chance to collect VGCS log, please send a copy to author.

The following A and Abis messages in the trace file will not be handled in current version. However they are seldom used (long message is often seen in SMS or Handover Request).

For R8, R9 and R10:

A interface:

RACOSNDBSSMAP1S, RACOSNDBSSMAP1E

RACOSENDDTAP1S, RACOSENDDTAP1E

RACOINMSGRSP1E

RACOTAKEBSSMAPS, RACOTAKEBSSMAPE

RACOTAKEDTAPS, RACOTAKEDTAPE

RACOTAKEINMSGS, RACOTAKEINMSGE

Abis interface:

RCRECABISMSGS, RCRECABISMSGE

RCSENDABISMSGS, RCSENDABISMSGE

For R11 and R12:

A interface:

RACOSNDBSSMAP1S, RACOSNDBSSMAP1E

RACOSENDDTAP1S, RACOSENDDTAP1E

RACOINMSGRSP1E

RACOTAKEBSSMAPS, RACOTAKEBSSMAPE

RACOTAKEDTAPS, RACOTAKEDTAPE

RACOTAKEINMSGS, RACOTAKEINMSGE

Abis interface:

RNRECABISMSGS, RNRECABISMSGE

RNSENDABISMSGS, RNSENDABISMSGE

The Application of Land Use and Land Cover

2010-01-10T21:15:00.000-08:00

White Paper : UMTS 900

2010-01-10T20:34:00.000-08:00

Traffic Engineering

2010-01-06T20:10:00.000-08:00

White Paper

2009-12-18T09:45:00.000-08:00

SmallVille 9

2009-11-24T21:36:00.000-08:00

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9. Chapter 9

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Heroes 4

2009-11-24T21:27:00.000-08:00

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9. Chapter 10

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10. Chapter 11

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11. Chapter 12

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12. Chapter 13

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13. Chapter 14

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14. Chapter 15

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15. Chapter 16

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GSM (chapter 2 : Antennas)

2009-11-24T20:26:00.000-08:00

GSM

CHAPTER 2

ANTENNAS

ANTENNA PARAMETERS

GAIN

Since an antenna is passive, the only way to obtain gain in any direction is to increase the directivity by concentrating the radiation in the wanted direction. For a loss free antenna the directivity can be given with the same number as the gain if the latter is given with respect to an isotropic antenna. Hence, in this chapter the distinction between gain and directivity is not always strictly maintained. The directivity can be increased by reflectors or by stacking dipoles on the same vertical line. The latter method can be used because a number of coherent radiation sources interfere constructively (in directions where they radiate in phase) and destructively (in directions where they are in “anti phase” and more or less cancel each other out). Each doubling of the number of dipole elements (corresponding to a doubling in length) increases the gain in the main direction by 3 dB. Figure 1 shows some different antenna arrays. The gain is different in different directions. However, when the antenna gain is quoted it is usually given for the direction of maximum radiation.

Figure 1 Antenna Arrays

Since the concentration of radiation is inversely proportional to the solid angle of the beam, the gain can be estimated if the beamwidths are known:

G = 10 x log 31000/(V3 x H3)

G = Antenna gain relative isotropic antenna (dBi)

V3 = Vertical beamwidth relative -3 dB points (degree centigrades)

H3 = Horizontal beamwidth relative -3 dB points (degree centigrades)

BEAMWIDTH

Vertical Beamwidth

Since the concentration of radiation is proportional to L/l, the vertical beamwidth decreases as the gain increases. The vertical beamwidth can be estimated if the length of the antenna is known:

V3 = 15300/(F x l)

V3 = Vertical beamwidth relative - 3 dB points (degrees centigrades)

F= Frequency (MHz)

l= Antenna length (meter)

ANTENNA DOWN TILTING

The vertical beam of an antenna is normally directed towards the horizon, assuming the antenna is correctly mounted. Lowering the beam below the horizon is known as “down tilt” (Figure 2). Consequently, if the beam is directed above the horizon, “up tilt” is achieved. Below is a description of the methods used to achieve down tilt and a discussion on how down tilt can improve the performance of a system. Up tilt will not be discussed further.

Figure 2 Antenna Down Tilt (Basic Geometry)

ELECTRICAL TILT

Electrical down tilt requires an antenna with a number of vertically stacked dipoles. (Here, the word “dipole” represents other radiating elements as well.) The individual dipoles can be oriented vertically, which is the most common orientation in cellular systems. They can also be oriented horizontally or at a slant (±45°) position. If all dipoles are fed with the same phase, the main beam of the vertical pattern will be perpendicular to the mechanical axis of the antenna (towards the horizon). A phase difference between the dipoles will result in a beam that deviates from the horizontal. Different tilt angles are available, depending on the antenna manufacturer. Typical values are 2° and 6°. An advantage of using electrical tilt is that the antenna is always mounted in a vertical position irrespective of tilt. A disadvantage is that the antennas must be ordered with a certain tilt angle. (Antennas with adjustable electrical tilt are available on the market to avoid the disadvantage of fixed tilt values. The antennas have a limited gain and are expensive.)

MECHANICAL TILT

Mechanical tilt is achieved by changing the mechanical alignment of the antenna. All antenna manufacturers have adjustable brackets designed for this purpose. It is possible to combine the electrical and mechanical methods.

CELL PLANNING ASPECTS ON DOWN TILT

Down tilt can be used to overcome coverage and/or interference problems. To be able to discuss down tilt from a general point of view, some special applications must be excluded, i.e. antennas on extreme hill tops, the “Manhattan syndrome”, etc. In these cases, tilt can always be motivated. As a general rule, to reduce co-channel interference, three criteria must be fulfilled:

1. Short site-to-site distances (small cells)

2. High mounted antennas

3. High gain antennas (narrow vertical beam)

Figure 3 Schematic of a Regular Network With Site to Site Distance of 1 km α=1° β=2°

Let us start with a case based on medium values (Figure 3). Site-to-site distance: 1 km; antenna height: 25 m; and an antenna with 14° vertical beamwidth (approximately at the -3 dB point). As a starting point, let us reduce the signals from the interfering site (Alpha) towards the interfered site (Bravo) by 7 dB. The diagram in Figure 3-4 shows that a tilt of 10° is needed to achieve a reduction of 7 dB towards the horizon. However, to reduce the signal by 7 dB at the cell border, a tilt of 11° is needed (10 + 1°) since the angle ( a) towards the cell border is 1°. Note that the gain reduction at the cell border for no tilt is almost zero.

We started with site Alpha which is a potential interferer to site Bravo. As we down tilted Alpha by 11°, the interference situation in site Bravo is improved by 7 dB. But if the network is regular (in a reasonable sense) site Bravo is also an interfering site to site Cairo. Now we have to down tilt Bravo as well with the same values as Alpha and the result in a regular network is that almost all sites must be down tilted The next step is to see what happens in the own site area when the antenna is down tilted. The angle (b ) between the horizontal and a mobile on street level on the cell border is 2° (Figure 3). It is obvious that the mean vertical beam is pointing somewhere inside the cell border. 11° corresponds to a distance of 129 m. From the same antenna diagram, it can be seen that the signals at the cell border are reduced by 5 dB, found in the diagram at 11 - 2° = 9°. Note that the gain reduction at the cell border for no tilt is almost zero.

The net result regarding C/I increase is only 2 dB -- at the expense of 5 dB coverage loss!

Figure 4 Typical gain reductions as a function of tilt angle for three different antennas (beamwidths are 7, 14, and 28 degrees)

Note that the figures are not drawn to scale (i.e. that the horizontal scale is different from the vertical scale). It is common to make figures in this way but it can be misleading. It is obvious that the calculations so far are based on a network in open terrain as no obstacles can be seen between the base station and the mobile. A more realistic case with respect to co-channel interference problems is in urban or suburban areas with buildings in-between (Figure 5).

Figure 5 This figure illustrates the fact that there is seldom line-of-sight between two antennas in an urban environment

It is unlikely that the radio signals follow the direct line between the base station antenna and the mobile, passing all the buildings in-between. It is more realistic to see the signals coming from (by reflection and diffraction) the roof tops down to the street. The angle to the cell border can then be calculated from the base station antenna height above roof tops (e.g. 5 m). Assuming a site-to-site distance of 1 km, it is an angle of 0.4° to the cell border. The conclusion is: Signals from the interfering site and the interfered site arrive at the cell border with a very small difference in the vertical angle - regardless of how much down tilt is applied. However, down tilting means that less radiation is transmitted across the roof tops and the coverage might decrease.

Returning to the three requirements in this section:

1. Short site-to-site distances (small cells)

2. High mounted antennas

3. High gain antennas (narrow vertical beam)

It can be seen that the first requirement (small cells) gives the possibility to achieve a difference in the two vertical angles towards the roof tops on the cell border and towards the roof tops on the interfered site. The second requirement helps to increase that difference. Finally, with a narrow vertical beam, a C/I increase by 2-3 dB is possible if 1° angle difference can be achieved (e.g. by mounting the antennas 20 m above the roof tops) and that not more than 5 dB coverage reduction is acceptable. For example, if a 7° antenna is tilted 5°, the gain reduction towards the roof tops for the interfered site is 3 dB (found at 5° - 2° = 3° in Figure 4); whereas for the interference, it is 5 dB (found at 5° - 1° = 4°) i.e. a 2 dB increase in C/I.

NULL FILL-IN

As previously mentioned, antenna gain is different in different directions (Figure 6). This means that areas at a certain distance (depending on the antenna height) from the antenna will be radiated by the first null rather than the main direction. Hence, the signal level will not decrease monotonically as the distance between the transmitting antenna and the receivers increases, but more as it is illustrated in Figure 7 and Figure 8. For parallel-fed collinear arrays, it is possible to reduce the gain reduction in the direction of the first null by simply adjusting the power fed to the different antenna elements slightly. This gives a small reduction in gain in the main direction but this is compensated for by much more predictable signal strengths in areas closer to the transmitting antenna.

Figure 6 Gain Reduction as a Function of Vertical Angle

Figure 7 High gain antenna at 25 m height

Figure 8 High gain antenna at 75 m height

DIVERSITY

There is a need for receiver diversity in cellular systems to improve the uplink. Space diversity is the conventional method used where the two RX antennas are separated by a certain distance. Based on experience from measurements and simulations (and because of installation advantages) polarization diversity is used in standard configurations. The signals from the two RX antennas are later combined in the base station. The result is an increase in signal strength of three to six dB. (The exact value depends on the similarity between the signals received from the two antennas where the two receiving antennas are separated by 90 degrees in the polarization plane.)

SPACE DIVERSITY

Figure 9 shows a traditional configuration with space diversity. The horizontal space needed for the antennas is dependent on the required diversity separation.

Figure 9 Antenna configuration with space diversity

POLARIZATION DIVERSITY

A dual-polarized antenna is an antenna device with two arrays within the same physical unit. The two arrays can be designed and oriented in different ways as long as the two polarization planes have equal performance with respect to gain and radiation patterns.

Figure 10 Dual polarized antennas

The two most common types are vertical/horizontal arrays and arrays in +/-45 degree slant orientation (Figure 10). The two arrays are connected to the respective RX branches in the BTS.

The two arrays can be used as combined TX/RX antennas (Figure 11) and then the number of antenna units is reduced compared with space diversity. The use of a duplex filter reduces the number of antenna units to only one per cell depending on configuration.

Figure 11 Antenna configuration with polarization diversity

The diversity gain obtained from polarization diversity is slightly less then the gain from space diversity. In the most critical environments (such as indoors and inside a car) the gain is, however, almost as good as if space diversity were used. A dual polarized antenna offers very low correlation between the two received signals, but the power reception of each branch is slightly better with space diversity. This implies a small benefit for space diversity in noise-limited environments. For most applications, the difference is negligible. In interference limited environments on the other hand, the low correlation obtained by polarization diversity is advantageous. Due to slightly different propagation characteristics for different kinds of polarization, the downlink from a +/-45 degree dual polarized antenna suffers from about 1.5 dB extra loss compared to a vertically polarized antenna. This loss only affects the downlink.

The isolation between the two polarization planes needs to be 30 dB. The size of the antenna must remain small, as the intention with polarization diversity is to reduce the outlook of the antenna installation.

INTERMODULATION (IM)

When two signals of a different frequency mix in a non-linear device, the result is InterModulation (IM). The non-linear devices can be, e.g. antennas, combiners, connectors, and duplex filters. IM can be a problem at any site that has two or more transmitters. The IM problems can be caused by a transmitter in the same system or by a transmitter in another system that is cosited or has a site in the neighborhood. Finding the intermodulation source can be time-consuming since the problem is often intermittent.

Second order products are given by the formula f1 +/- f2 . Both these frequencies are outside the receiver passband. In fact, all the even-order products will be well outside the receiver passband. Third order products are given by the formulae 2 x f1 - f2 and 2 x f2 - f1. These frequencies fall inside the band. All oddorder products can cause problems (Figure 12). However, higher order products (usually 7th order and higher) decrease rapidly in power and therefore do not cause any problems.

Figure 12 Intermodulation in 900 MHz cellular system

The allocated frequency band and the duplex distance are what determines if the IM will cause problems (Table 1 and Table 2). IM3 products are strong enough to degrade the receiver sensitivity even though there is no combining; just backwards coupling from one antenna to the other. IM5 is a problem if the frequencies are combined before entering the duplex filter.

Table 1 The maximum band (B) to avoid intermodulation. Based on worst case scenario, which is IM from the lowest and the highest frequencies in the allocated band

Table 2 Worst case relations for IM in the RX band. D= Duplex distance (MHz), B = allocated band (MHz)

GSM (chapter 1)

2009-11-24T00:00:00.000-08:00

GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS (GSM)

In 1982, the Nordic PTT sent a proposal to Conférence Européenne des Postes et Télécommunications (CEPT) to specify a common European telecommunication service at 900 MHz. A Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) standardization group was established to formulate the specifications for this pan-European mobile cellular radio system. During 1982 through 1985, discussions centered around whether to build an analog or a digital system. Then in 1985, GSM decided to develop a digital system. In 1986, companies participated in a field test in Paris to determine whether a narrowband or broadband solution would be employed. By May 1987, the narrowband Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) solution was chosen. Concurrently, operators in 13 countries (two operators in the United Kingdom) signed the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) which committed them to fulfilling GSM specifications and delivering a GSM system by July 1, 1991. This opened a large new market. The next step in the GSM evolution was the specification of Personal Communication Network (PCN) for the 1800 MHz frequency range. This was named the Digital Cellular System (DCS) 1800. The Personal Communication Services (PCS) 1900 for the 1900 MHz frequency range was also established.

THE DIFFERENT GSM-BASED NETWORKS

Different frequency bands are used for GSM 900/1800 and GSM 1900 (Figure 1). In some countries, an operator applies for the available frequencies. In other countries (e.g. United States), an operator purchases available frequency bands at auctions.

Figure 1 Frequency Band for different GSM

NETWORK HARDWARE

Every cellular system has hardware that is specific to it and each piece of hardware has a specific function. The Ericsson GSMbased systems comply to the GSM standard while varying from

it for the purpose of overall system improvement. The system solutions integrate existing hardware and new technology to provide a “total” solution to the mobile telephony market. The major systems in the network are:

· Operation and Support System

· Switching System

· Base Station System

The system is normally configured as depicted in Figure 2.

Figure 2 GSM Based System Model

OPERATION AND SUPPORT SYSTEM (OSS)

For GSM system administration, the OSS supports the network operator by providing:

· Cellular network administration

· Network operation and support

SWITCHING SYSTEM (SS)

Figure 3 shows the main components of the switching system. The following is a brief description of each of these components.

Figure 3 Switching System

· Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC)

The MSC is responsible for set-up, routing, and supervision of calls to and from mobile subscribers. Other functions are also implemented in the MSC, such as authentication. The MSC is built on an AXE-10 platform.

· Visitor Location Register (VLR)

In the GSM based solution, the VLR is integrated with the MSC. This is referred to as the MSC/VLR. The VLR contains non-permanent information about the mobile subscribers visiting the MSC/VLR service area, e.g. which location area the MS is in currently.

· Gateway MSC (GMSC)

The GMSC supports the function for routing incoming calls to the MSC where the mobile subscriber is currently registered. It is normally integrated in the same nodes as MSC/VLR.

· Home Location Register (HLR)

In GSM, each operator has a database containing information about all subscribers belonging to the specific Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN). This database can be implemented in one or more HLRs. Two examples of information stored in the database are the location (MSC/VLR service area) of the subscribers and services requested. The HLR is built on an AXE-10 platform.

· Authentication Center (AUC)

For security reasons, speech, data, and signaling are ciphered, and the subscription is authenticated at access. The AUC provides authentication and encryption parameters required for subscriber verification and to ensure call confidentiality.

· Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

In GSM there is a distinction between subscription and mobile equipment. As mentioned above, the AUC checks the subscription at access. The EIR checks the mobile equipment to prevent a stolen or non-type-approved MS from being used.

· Interworking Location Register (ILR)

Around the world there are market demands for roaming capabilities with GSM. The ILR is the node that forwards roaming information between cellular networks using different operating standards. This currently exists only in the GSM 1900 network.

· Short Message Service Gateway MSC (SMS-GMSC)

A Short Message Service Gateway MSC (SMS-GMSC) is capable of receiving a short message from a Service Center (SC), interrogating an HLR for routing information and message waiting data, and delivering the short message to the MSC of the recipient MS. In GSM system, the SMS-GMSC functionality is normally integrated in the MSC/VLR node.

· Short Message Service Interworking MSC (SMSIWMSC)

A Short Message Service InterWorking MSC (SMSIWMSC) is capable of receiving a mobile originated short message from the MSC or an ALERT message from the HLR and submitting the message to the recipient Service Center (SC). The SMS-IWMSC functionality is normally

integrated in the MSC/VLR node.

· Data Transmission Interface (DTI)

DTI - consisting of both hardware and software - provides an interface to various networks for data communication. Through DTI, users can alternate between speech and data during the same call. Its main functions include a modem and fax adapter pool and the ability to perform rate adaptation. It was earlier implemented as the GSM InterWorking Unit (GIWU).

BASE STATION SYSTEM (BSS)

The Base Station System (BSS) is comprised of two major components. They are:

· Base Station Controller (BSC)

· Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

Figure 4 Base Station System

The Base Station Controller (BSC) is the central point of the BSS. The BSC can manage the entire radio network and performs the following functions:

· Handling of the mobile station connection and handover

· Radio network management

· Transcoding and rate adaptation

· Traffic concentration

· Transmission management of the BTSs

· Remote control of the BTSs

Draw Smith Chart Using excell

2009-11-20T16:18:00.000-08:00

A situation arose at work where we needed to be able to plot complex impedance points taken off the network analyzer display and plot them on a Smith Chart. A modification to the original Smith Chart for Excel permits doing so. If you download the new edition, you will need to enable the Analysis ToolPak (included with Excel as an Add-In) to perform the complex math.

The original Smith Chart for Excel that takes s-parameters as input is detailed below.

This example Excel workbook demonstrates how easy it is to implement a Smith Chart using only a standard x-y scatter chart and coordinate conversions. The workbook shown below used data imported from a typical S-parameter file (in this case an RF2321 amplifier, from RF Micro Devices) and plotted on a chart that uses an image file that contains a Smith Chart. Version 2.0 adds equivalent denormalized impedance with equivalent resistance and capacitance/inductance values. Version 2.1 corrects a graphical equation, but does not affect the accuracy of the previous versions (thanks to Peter for alerting me).

Step-by-step instructions are presented below. Click here to download the example workbook. Click here to download just the background Smith Chart graphic. Finally, click here if you would like a fully-detailed Smith Chart, created in Visio, with impedance and admittance lines.

If you appreciate the effort it took to develop this workbook, please consider making a donation to RF Cafe by clicking here (at the bottom of the list).

Engineers use spreadsheets for a myriad of applications from calculating cascaded chains of components to PLL phase noise prediction, but I can never recall seeing S‑parameters plotted in a spreadsheet using a Smith Chart¹. If a Smith Chart is included in a spreadsheet, it is usually an image pasted in from some other application. This article describes an extremely simple method of implementing a Smith Chart using the built‑in graphing capability of any modern spreadsheet program (Excel is used in this example). All that is required is an accurate graphic of a Smith Chart for use as the chart background image, and a rectangular‑to‑cylindrical coordinate conversion.

Example Spreadsheet

RF2321 Datasheet Excerpt

Although the example given here is used to plot S‑parameters from a file, the possibilities are great for generating any sort of Smith Chart application such as for impedance matching.

A general-purpose amplifier (RF2321) manufactured by RF Micro Devices is used in this example, and its S-parameter file was downloaded from the RFMD website. A copy of the datasheet Smith Charts are given for results comparison. Here are step-by-step instructions for generating your first Smith Chart. Experienced Excel users might want to skip down to the image loading and calibration section.

Open a new workbook in Excel.
Click the "File/Open..." menu selection and locate the S‑parameter file to be plotted (in this case, “23212725.s2p”). Set the window to display "All Files (*.*)," since the S‑parameter file will most likely not end in an Excel extension.
The Text Import Wizard will open. Select the "Delimited" option, then click "Next."
Unclick the "Tab" checkbox and select "Space." Scroll down into the data area and verify that the data is separated by vertical lines at the appropriate points (lined up in columns), then click "Next."
Click "Finish." You will now have all the data imported into a worksheet. Now would be a good time to save the workbook under a new name (be sure to save it as an Excel worksheet).
The data column labels might need to be shifted to line up with the data (results will not be affected if left as is). The data cannot be plotted as imported and must be translated into equivalent circular coordinates (very simple).
Click the "Insert/Worksheet" menu selections.
Refer to the example spreadsheet as a suggested format for the plotting data.
In the "Freq (MHz)" column, use the equation ="Freq"/1e6, where "Freq" is referenced from the S‑parameter import worksheet. This column is not plotted, but is provided as a reference for the S‑parameter.
In the "S11x" column, use the equation ="|S11|"*cos("∕ S11"*PI()/180), where "|S11|" is the magnitude and "
In the "S11y" column, use the equation ="|S11|"*sin("∕ S11"*PI()/180).
In the "S22x" column, use the equation ="|S22|"*cos("∕ S22"*PI()/180).
In the "S22y" column, use the equation ="|S22|"*sin("∕ S22"*PI()/180).
That creates the first row of equations. Now, highlight all five cells and grab the "handle at the lower right corner of the highlighted area and drag it down by the number of rows of imported data (201 in this case). You can cut out whatever data you do not want to plot.
Use the "Format/Cells..." menu selection to format the numbers to your preference.
Highlight the entire group of S‑parameter data (201rows by 4 columns), then click the "Insert/Chart..." menu selection. Click the "XY (Scatter)" chart type and then select the "Scatter with data points connected by lines." picture in the lower left. Do not worry that the preview looks meaningless at this point. Click "Next."
Select the "Series" tab. Highlight "Series 1" in the list, then place the cursor in the "Name" edit box and type in S11. The name in the list will change to "S11."
Click "Series 2" in the list and then click the "Remove" button.
Click "Series 3" in the list and rename it to S22. In the "X Values" edit box, change the "$B" to "$D" on both sides of the colon, then click "Next."
Click the "Gridlines" tab and uncheck everything, then click the "Legend" tab and select the "Corner" option. Click "Next," then "Finish."
Move the chart to a convenient place on the worksheet, and reshape it to as close to a square as possible. Not being a perfect square will not affect the accuracy of the plotted points, but will make a nasty looking Smith Chart.
Click an open area of the graph (the "Plot Area") and use the "handles" to resize the graph to fill the graph window (it will not go all the way to the edge).
LOADING THE SMITH CHART IMAGE
Right-click in the Plot Area and select the "Format Plot Area..." menu selection, then click the "Fill Effects..." button. Next, click the "Picture" tab and click the "Select Picture..." button.
Navigate to where your favorite Smith Chart image is located and select it. The one used in this example can be downloaded from the RF Cafe web site. If you are creating your own version, the best results can be had using a vector image creator (such as Visio) and then saving it in WMF or EMF format. Doing so preserves the sharpness of lines when resizing. It is also necessary to provide white space around the edge of the image to allow for the Excel plot area not being able to extend all the way to the edges. Click Insert. Click the "OK" buttons to close all the formatting windows.
CALIBRATING THE SCALES
Somewhere on the worksheet enter the numbers -1, 0, and 1 in separate cells. These will be used to set the scale to correspond with the outer circle.
Right-click in the Plot Area and choose the "Source Data..." menu selection, then click the "Series" tab.
Click the "Add" button and type "-1+j0" in the "Name" edit area. Place the cursor in the "X Values" edit area and select the cell with the "-1" in it. Place the cursor in the "Y Values" edit area and select the cell with the "0" in it. Note that any default values in the edited areas must be overwritten.
Click the "Add" button and type "1+j0" in the "Name" edit area. Place the cursor in the "X Values" edit area and select the cell with the "1" in it. Place the cursor in the "Y Values" edit area and select the cell with the "0" in it.
Click the "Add" button and type "0+j1" in the "Name" edit area. Place the cursor in the "X Values" edit area and select the cell with the "0" in it. Place the cursor in the "Y Values" edit area and select the cell with the "1" in it.
Click the "Add" button and type "0-j1" in the "Name" edit area. Place the cursor in the "X Values" edit area and select the cell with the "-1" in it. Place the cursor in the "Y Values" edit area and select the cell with the "0" in it. Click "OK."
Right-click the y-axis and select the "Format Axis..." menu selection, then click the "Scale" tab.
Set the "Minimum" value to -1.02, the "Maximum" value to 1.02, and the "Major unit" and "Minor unit" values to 5. Click OK."
Right-click the x-axis and select the "Format Axis..." menu selection, then click the "Scale" tab.
Set the "Minimum" value to -1.02, the "Maximum" value to 1.02, and the "Major unit" and "Minor unit" values to 5. Click "OK."
If the calibration marks do not line up with the unit circle of your Smith Chart, go back and adjust the scales until they do. After calibration, the marks and axis lines and labels can be removed to eliminate clutter.

That's all there is to it. As you can see, the results are identical to the published Smith Chart in the RFMD datasheet. Once you do the first one, the rest will be really easy. Of course, if you do not want to go to the trouble of carrying out the above procedure, you can simply go to the RF Cafe web site (http://www.rfcafe.com) and download the "Smith Chart for Excel" file free of charge. This exact example workbook is what you will be getting. - Enjoy!

REFERENCES

Smith Chart is a registered trademark of Analog Instruments Company, New Providence, NJ
“Field and Wave Electromagnetics,” by David K. Cheng, Addison Wesley, 1983

Please remember to credit RF Cafe for the idea if you use it in a publication!

Source : http://www.rfcafe.com/business/software/smith-chart-for-excel/smith-chart-for-excel.htm

Link Planning Tools (excell worksheet)

2009-11-20T16:10:00.000-08:00

R. Alok K. Tiwari, of Idea Cellular Ltd., has graciously made this "Transmission Link Planning" workbook available. The following text is provided by Mr. Tiwari:

Click to download:

Important: If the file name is changed from the supplied "Link Planning Tool.xls," some of the macros will not function properly. It would be best to save the completed workbook under a new name, then start on new systems with the original file.

Here is the description for using the utility:
1. We mainly enter the parameter value into the
sheet "Calculations".
a. Entries shown in YELLOW cells are
mandatory.
b. Entries shown in GREY cells are to play with in order to
get the desired result wrt Standard Link Design Criteria.
c. Entries shown in SEA GREEN are ONE-TIME entries like
temperature, pressure etc.

DISCLAIMER: Use of this UTILITY is not intended for any commercial set-up. The author is not responsible for any type of damage occurred due to implementation of the results obtained from this utility to any commercial set-up.

PASSWORDS:
Sheet "Calculations" : Password "link"
Sheet "Antenna Heights": Password "antennae"
Sheet "Report": Password "report"
Sheet "DB_Ant1(18Ghz)": Password "antennae"
Sheet "DB_Ant2(15Ghz)": Password "antennae"
Sheet "DB_RadioEqpt": Password "radio"
Sheet "PassiveRepeater": Password "passive"

Above Passwords are activated into the file attached to this mail.
Please be careful while making any change to Sheet "Calculations" for it contains the most important formulae.

The "Calculation" sheet looks up for the required data :
a. For Antennae (of 18 GHz band) from the sheet:
"DB_Ant1 (18GHz).
Using the Password sizes and gains can be
modified.
Note that only FOUR sizes are permissible to
provide into this sheet.

b. For Antennae (of 15 GHz band) and Frequency of
Operation from the sheet:"DB_Ant2 (15GHz).
Using Password sizes and gains can be modified.
Note that only FOUR antennae sizes EIGHT Frequencies in TWO separate bands
can be used.
Also do not change the frequency named F1,F2,....F6,G1,G2. Only their respective
values can be changed.

c. For Radio Specific Data form the sheet:
DB_RadioEqpt.
Using Password we can also modify the Radio Names, their signature data and
Radio Parameters. Here THREE different type of Radios can be used.

2. The Sheet "Antenna Heights" is to calculate the antennae heights
based on LOS survey feedback data.

3. The Sheet "Report" is just the
compilation of information used in
link implementation.

This is to bring to your kind notice that formulae used into this workbook are as per ITU-T.As I'm using the Tool like Nokia's NETACT PLANNER and CTE's PATHLOSS, I've observed the similar results at least for Link Design parameters.

Source : http://www.rfcafe.com/business/software/link-planning-tool/link-planning-tool-excel.htm